Gender pay gap: A mediating agent of compassion, self-esteem, mindfulness, personal sense of uniqueness and racial socialization for psychological well being
Keywords:
Gender Pay Gap, Psychological Well-being, Personal Sense of Uniqueness, Compassion, Self Esteem, Racial Socialization, Mindfulness
Abstract
The study measures the impact of compassion on psychological well-being of employees in educational institute of the southern Punjab, Pakistan with mediating role of gender pay gap. The objective of this study is to find out the relationship of compassion, self-esteem, mindfulness, personal sense of uniqueness and racial socialization with psychological well-being of employee and to find indirect relationship using gender pay gap as mediator. A sample of 400 teachers was utilized to find out results of study through Likert scale. Structural Equation Modelling and Multiple Regression analysis have been applied using Smart PLS3. Results found that compassion, mindfulness and racial socialization have significant impact on psychological wellbeing of employee. Mediation effect of gender pay gap has been identified between compassion, self-esteem, personal sense of uniqueness and racial socialization with psychological well-being. This study contributes well to the existing literature by highlighting the influence of the relationship between gender pay gap and psychological wellbeing. According to the findings of this study, it is important to increase compassion, mindfulness, self-esteem, personal sense of uniqueness to improve the welfare of employees, enable them to better deal with gender pay gap and make them psychological well.
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References
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Blazina, C., & Watkins Jr, C. E. (1996). Masculine gender role conflict: Effects on college men's psychological well-being, chemical substance usage, and attitudes towards help-seeking. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43(4), 461.
Bluth, K., & Blanton, P. W. (2014). Mindfulness and self-compassion: Exploring pathways to adolescent emotional well-being. Journal of child and family studies, 23(7), 1298-1309.
Bowen, S., & Enkema, M. C. (2014). Relationship between dispositional mindfulness and substance use: Findings from a clinical sample. Addictive behaviors, 39(3), 532-537.
Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2004). Perils and promise in defining and measuring mindfulness: Observations from experience. Clinical psychology: Science and practice, 11(3), 242-248.
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Chang, A., & Nguyen, L. T. (2011). The mediating effects of time structure on the relationships between time management behaviour, job satisfaction, and psychological well‐being. Australian Journal of Psychology, 63(4), 187-197.
Cooper, S. M., & McLoyd, V. C. (2011). Racial barrier socialization and the well‐being of African American adolescents: The moderating role of mother–adolescent relationship quality. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21(4), 895-903.
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Olsen, O., Iversen, L., & Sabroe, S. (1991). Age and the operationalization of social support. Social science & medicine, 32(7), 767-771.
Paradise, A. W., & Kernis, M. H. (2002). Self-esteem and psychological well-being: Implications of fragile self-esteem. Journal of social and clinical psychology, 21(4), 345-361.
Petersen, J. L., & Hyde, J. S. (2010). A meta-analytic review of research on gender differences in sexuality, 1993–2007. Psychological bulletin, 136(1), 21.
Pinquart, M., & Sörensen, S. (2001). Gender differences in self-concept and psychological well-being in old age: A meta-analysis. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 56(4), P195-P213.
Raab, K. (2014). Mindfulness, self-compassion, and empathy among health care professionals: a review of the literature. Journal of health care chaplaincy, 20(3), 95-108.
Raes, F., Pommier, E., Neff, K. D., & Van Gucht, D. (2011). Construction and factorial validation of a short form of the self‐compassion scale. Clinical psychology & psychotherapy, 18(3), 250-255.
Rodionova, E. A., & Dominiak, V. I. (2019). Motivational resources for project teams’ success. Amazonia Investiga, 8(24), 296-305.
Roothman, B., Kirsten, D. K., & Wissing, M. P. (2003). Gender differences in aspects of psychological well-being. South African journal of psychology, 33(4), 212-218.
Rosenberg, M. (2015). Society and the adolescent self-image: Princeton university press.
Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of personality and social psychology, 57(6), 1069.
Ryff, C. D. (1995). Psychological well-being in adult life. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4(4), 99-104.
Saunders, K. J., & Kashubeck-West, S. (2006). The relations among feminist identity development, gender-role orientation, and psychological well-being in women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30(2), 199-211.
Scheier, M. F., Carver, C. S., & Bridges, M. W. (2001). Optimism, pessimism, and psychological well-being.
Sharpe, M. J., & Heppner, P. P. (1991). Gender role, gender-role conflict, and psychological well-being in men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38(3), 323.
Sheldon, K. M., & Bettencourt, B. A. (2002). Psychological need‐satisfaction and subjective well‐being within social groups. British Journal of Social Psychology, 41(1), 25-38.
Şimşek, Ö. F., & Yalınçetin, B. (2010). I feel unique, therefore I am: The development and preliminary validation of the personal sense of uniqueness (PSU) scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(6), 576-581.
Sprang, G., Clark, J. J., & Whitt-Woosley, A. (2007). Compassion fatigue, compassion satisfaction, and burnout: Factors impacting a professional's quality of life. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 12(3), 259-280.
Tennant, R., Hiller, L., Fishwick, R., Platt, S., Joseph, S., Weich, S., . . . Stewart-Brown, S. (2007). The Warwick-Edinburgh mental well-being scale (WEMWBS): development and UK validation. Health and Quality of life Outcomes, 5(1), 63.
Van Dam, N. T., Sheppard, S. C., Forsyth, J. P., & Earleywine, M. (2011). Self-compassion is a better predictor than mindfulness of symptom severity and quality of life in mixed anxiety and depression. Journal of anxiety disorders, 25(1), 123-130.
Wei, M., Liao, K. Y. H., Ku, T. Y., & Shaffer, P. A. (2011). Attachment, self‐compassion, empathy, and subjective well‐being among college students and community adults. Journal of personality, 79(1), 191-221.
Weichselbaumer, D., & Winter‐Ebmer, R. (2005). A meta‐analysis of the international gender wage gap. Journal of Economic Surveys, 19(3), 479-511.
Zell, E., Krizan, Z., & Teeter, S. R. (2015). Evaluating gender similarities and differences using metasynthesis. American Psychologist, 70(1), 10.
Zessin, U., Dickhäuser, O., & Garbade, S. (2015). The relationship between self‐compassion and well‐being: A meta‐analysis. Applied Psychology: Health and Well‐Being, 7(3), 340-364.
Anderson, N. D., Lau, M. A., Segal, Z. V., & Bishop, S. R. (2007). Mindfulness‐based stress reduction and attentional control. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy: An International Journal of Theory & Practice, 14(6), 449-463.
Baer, R. A., Lykins, E. L., & Peters, J. R. (2012). Mindfulness and self-compassion as predictors of psychological wellbeing in long-term meditators and matched nonmeditators. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 7(3), 230-238.
Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., Hopkins, J., Krietemeyer, J., & Toney, L. (2006). Using self-report assessment methods to explore facets of mindfulness. Assessment, 13(1), 27-45.
Bergeron, D., & Tylka, T. L. (2007). Support for the uniqueness of body dissatisfaction from drive for muscularity among men. Body Image, 4(3), 288-295.
Blau, F. D., & Kahn, L. M. (2006). The gender pay gap: Going, going... but not gone. The declining significance of gender, 37-66.
Blazina, C., & Watkins Jr, C. E. (1996). Masculine gender role conflict: Effects on college men's psychological well-being, chemical substance usage, and attitudes towards help-seeking. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43(4), 461.
Bluth, K., & Blanton, P. W. (2014). Mindfulness and self-compassion: Exploring pathways to adolescent emotional well-being. Journal of child and family studies, 23(7), 1298-1309.
Bowen, S., & Enkema, M. C. (2014). Relationship between dispositional mindfulness and substance use: Findings from a clinical sample. Addictive behaviors, 39(3), 532-537.
Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2004). Perils and promise in defining and measuring mindfulness: Observations from experience. Clinical psychology: Science and practice, 11(3), 242-248.
Busseri, M. A., & Sadava, S. W. (2011). A review of the tripartite structure of subjective well-being: Implications for conceptualization, operationalization, analysis, and synthesis. Personality and social psychology review, 15(3), 290-314.
Chang, A., & Nguyen, L. T. (2011). The mediating effects of time structure on the relationships between time management behaviour, job satisfaction, and psychological well‐being. Australian Journal of Psychology, 63(4), 187-197.
Cooper, S. M., & McLoyd, V. C. (2011). Racial barrier socialization and the well‐being of African American adolescents: The moderating role of mother–adolescent relationship quality. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21(4), 895-903.
Crocker, J., Luhtanen, R., Blaine, B., & Broadnax, S. (1994). Collective self-esteem and psychological well-being among White, Black, and Asian college students. Personality and social psychology Bulletin, 20(5), 503-513.
Demir, M., Şimşek, Ö. F., & Procsal, A. D. (2013). I am so happy ‘cause my best friend makes me feel unique: Friendship, personal sense of uniqueness and happiness. Journal of Happiness Studies, 14(4), 1201-1224.
Demo, D. H., & Hughes, M. (1990). Socialization and racial identity among Black Americans. Social Psychology Quarterly, 364-374.
Harris‐Britt, A., Valrie, C. R., Kurtz‐Costes, B., & Rowley, S. J. (2007). Perceived racial discrimination and self‐esteem in African American youth: Racial socialization as a protective factor. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 17(4), 669-682.
Hughes, D., Rodriguez, J., Smith, E. P., Johnson, D. J., Stevenson, H. C., & Spicer, P. (2006). Parents' ethnic-racial socialization practices: a review of research and directions for future study. Developmental psychology, 42(5), 747.
Hyde, J. S. (2007). New directions in the study of gender similarities and differences. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(5), 259-263.
Kim, J. E., & Moen, P. (2002). Retirement transitions, gender, and psychological well-being: A life-course, ecological model. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 57(3), P212-P222.
Langan-Fox, J., Sankey, M. J., & Canty, J. M. (2009). Incongruence between implicit and self-attributed achievement motives and psychological well-being: The moderating role of self-directedness, self-disclosure and locus of control. Personality and Individual Differences, 47(2), 99-104.
Laurent, V. R. (2016). The Influence of Racial Socialization on the Academic Achievement of Black College Students.
Lyness, K. S., & Judiesch, M. K. (2014). Gender egalitarianism and work–life balance for managers: Multisource perspectives in 36 countries. Applied Psychology, 63(1), 96-129.
Neely, M. E., Schallert, D. L., Mohammed, S. S., Roberts, R. M., & Chen, Y.-J. (2009). Self-kindness when facing stress: The role of self-compassion, goal regulation, and support in college students’ well-being. Motivation and Emotion, 33(1), 88-97.
Neff, K. (2004). Self-compassion and psychological well-being. Constructivism in the human sciences, 9(2), 27.
Neff, K. D. (2011). Self‐compassion, self‐esteem, and well‐being. Social and personality psychology compass, 5(1), 1-12.
Olsen, O., Iversen, L., & Sabroe, S. (1991). Age and the operationalization of social support. Social science & medicine, 32(7), 767-771.
Paradise, A. W., & Kernis, M. H. (2002). Self-esteem and psychological well-being: Implications of fragile self-esteem. Journal of social and clinical psychology, 21(4), 345-361.
Petersen, J. L., & Hyde, J. S. (2010). A meta-analytic review of research on gender differences in sexuality, 1993–2007. Psychological bulletin, 136(1), 21.
Pinquart, M., & Sörensen, S. (2001). Gender differences in self-concept and psychological well-being in old age: A meta-analysis. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 56(4), P195-P213.
Raab, K. (2014). Mindfulness, self-compassion, and empathy among health care professionals: a review of the literature. Journal of health care chaplaincy, 20(3), 95-108.
Raes, F., Pommier, E., Neff, K. D., & Van Gucht, D. (2011). Construction and factorial validation of a short form of the self‐compassion scale. Clinical psychology & psychotherapy, 18(3), 250-255.
Rodionova, E. A., & Dominiak, V. I. (2019). Motivational resources for project teams’ success. Amazonia Investiga, 8(24), 296-305.
Roothman, B., Kirsten, D. K., & Wissing, M. P. (2003). Gender differences in aspects of psychological well-being. South African journal of psychology, 33(4), 212-218.
Rosenberg, M. (2015). Society and the adolescent self-image: Princeton university press.
Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of personality and social psychology, 57(6), 1069.
Ryff, C. D. (1995). Psychological well-being in adult life. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4(4), 99-104.
Saunders, K. J., & Kashubeck-West, S. (2006). The relations among feminist identity development, gender-role orientation, and psychological well-being in women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30(2), 199-211.
Scheier, M. F., Carver, C. S., & Bridges, M. W. (2001). Optimism, pessimism, and psychological well-being.
Sharpe, M. J., & Heppner, P. P. (1991). Gender role, gender-role conflict, and psychological well-being in men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38(3), 323.
Sheldon, K. M., & Bettencourt, B. A. (2002). Psychological need‐satisfaction and subjective well‐being within social groups. British Journal of Social Psychology, 41(1), 25-38.
Şimşek, Ö. F., & Yalınçetin, B. (2010). I feel unique, therefore I am: The development and preliminary validation of the personal sense of uniqueness (PSU) scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(6), 576-581.
Sprang, G., Clark, J. J., & Whitt-Woosley, A. (2007). Compassion fatigue, compassion satisfaction, and burnout: Factors impacting a professional's quality of life. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 12(3), 259-280.
Tennant, R., Hiller, L., Fishwick, R., Platt, S., Joseph, S., Weich, S., . . . Stewart-Brown, S. (2007). The Warwick-Edinburgh mental well-being scale (WEMWBS): development and UK validation. Health and Quality of life Outcomes, 5(1), 63.
Van Dam, N. T., Sheppard, S. C., Forsyth, J. P., & Earleywine, M. (2011). Self-compassion is a better predictor than mindfulness of symptom severity and quality of life in mixed anxiety and depression. Journal of anxiety disorders, 25(1), 123-130.
Wei, M., Liao, K. Y. H., Ku, T. Y., & Shaffer, P. A. (2011). Attachment, self‐compassion, empathy, and subjective well‐being among college students and community adults. Journal of personality, 79(1), 191-221.
Weichselbaumer, D., & Winter‐Ebmer, R. (2005). A meta‐analysis of the international gender wage gap. Journal of Economic Surveys, 19(3), 479-511.
Zell, E., Krizan, Z., & Teeter, S. R. (2015). Evaluating gender similarities and differences using metasynthesis. American Psychologist, 70(1), 10.
Zessin, U., Dickhäuser, O., & Garbade, S. (2015). The relationship between self‐compassion and well‐being: A meta‐analysis. Applied Psychology: Health and Well‐Being, 7(3), 340-364.
Published
2020-04-21
How to Cite
Sajjad, M., Khadam, A., Tariq, B., ., O., & Chani, M. (2020). Gender pay gap: A mediating agent of compassion, self-esteem, mindfulness, personal sense of uniqueness and racial socialization for psychological well being. Amazonia Investiga, 9(28), 166-175. https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2020.28.04.20
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